Because nucleic acids can be created with four bases, and because base pairing rules allow information to be copied by using one strand of nucleic acids as a template to create another, these molecules are able to both contain and copy information. In a series of experiments by Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty, the demonstration that DNA contained the genetic information was first made in 1944. (1975) Science 187, 2735. This article covers the chemistry of nucleic acids, describing the structures and properties that allow them to serve as the transmitters of genetic information. W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York, 1976. If the binding of the third strand in the major groove occurs at site where RNA polymerase binds to a gene, then third stand can inhibit gene transcription. A first glance at a DNA or RNA structure reveals a myriad of possible hydrogen bond donors and acceptors in the bases of the nucleic acid. A creationist would say that this is part of the intelligent design. How Nucleic Acids Work (2019, July 8). In molecular biology shorthand, the nitrogenous bases are often just referred to by their one-letter symbols, A, T, G, C, and U. DNA contains A, T, G, and C, while RNA contains A, U, G, and C (that is, U is swapped in for T). 5 types: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, uracil. The term polymer comes from poly for many and mer for parts, referring to the fact that each nucleic acid is made of many nucleotides. By taking signals from hormones or other external chemical signals, cells respond to their environment. The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. Click the image for a popup or use the links in column 1. The processes of DNA replication and repair will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 28. Biologydictionary.net Editors. For example, the HIV Rev peptide binds to a target site in the envelop gene of HIV (which has an RNA genome) and leads to the formation of an RNA loop with hydrogen bonding between two purines. Watson, J.D., Molecular Biology of the Gene, 3rd. Water around the wobble base pairs can form hydrogen bonds and stabilize the pair if an hydrogen bond is missing. Consider just two of these, the propellor and twist angles. These can be formed in DNA and RNA from G-rich sequences involving tetrads of guanine bases that are hydrogen bonded. Hence AT and GC base pairs contribute equally to stability. The well-known . Of course the hydrogen bonds are not between backbone atoms but between side chain bases in double stranded DNA. (iv) Some RNAs act as enzyme. Also, AT/GC are found in DNA while RNA is made from AU/GC. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows a schematic representation of available hydrogen bond donors and acceptors in the major and minor grove for TA and CG base pairs. Which of the following is NOT a function of a nucleic acid? Figure \(\PageIndex{23}\): The wobble uridine (U34) of tRNA molecules that recognize both AAand AG-ending codons for Lys, Gln, and Glu, is modified by the addition of both a thiol (s2) and a methoxy-carbonyl-methyl (mcm5). A biological polymer made of amino acid monomers is a answer choices protein lipid carbohydrate nucleic acid Question 3 30 seconds Q. mRNA is like a recipe from a cookbook; a list of ingredients to make a protein. Before understanding the biological function of nucleic acids, we need to understand the term Nucleic Acid first. During processes that unravel DNA (replication, transcription, repair), self-association of individual mirror repeats can form a locally stable triple helix, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{31}\). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. A related type of nucleic acid, called ribonucleic acid (RNA), comes in different molecular forms that . Interestingly, the two strands of the DNA double helix lie in opposite directions or have a head to tail orientation. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. Dickson, R.C., Abelson, J., Barnes, W.M., Reznikoff, W.S. mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, miRNA, and siRNA. A nucleic acid is a chain of nucleotides which stores genetic information in biological systems. Unit 11 Structure & Function Of Nucleic Acids - Assignment Brief Awarding Body BTEC Pearson - Studocu This is the first assignment and recieved distinction. nucleic acid, naturally occurring chemical compound that is capable of being broken down to yield phosphoric acid, sugars, and a mixture of organic bases (purines and pyrimidines). Structure of a tRNA. Nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), carry genetic information which is read in cells to make the RNA and proteins by which living things function. The phosphate group that makes up part of the nucleotide monomer is always attached to the 5 position of the deoxyribose sugar residue. Answers: 1 Show answers Another question on Biology . The structure contains many GU wobble base pairs as well as two CU base pairs between two pyrimidine bases. The hydrogen-bonded interstrand base pairs are shown alternatively in spacefill and sticks to illustrate how the bases stack on top of each other. Recombination also must allow chain extension as it maintains base-pairing fidelity. The core structure of a nucleic acid monomer is the nucleoside, which consists of a sugar residue + a nitrogenous base that is attached to the sugar residue at the 1 position as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Cold Spring Harbor Monograph Series, Cold Spring Harb. RNA, unlike DNA, usually but not always exists in a single-stranded form. Notice in the image the ribose molecule has one more OH group than the deoxyribose molecule. The two nucleotide monomers are then fully linked with a covalent bond through that oxygen molecule, turning them into a single molecule. The second messenger is often a nucleotide. (after Jain et al. Adenosine 3', 5'-cyclic monophosphate (cyclic AMP, or cAMP), formed from ATP in a reaction catalyzed by adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme associated with the plasma membrane's inner face, is one of the most common. If not, why? It is the source of information for the synthesis of all cell and organism protein molecules, and it provides the information that daughter cells or offspring have inherited. To understand this process, it may be useful to compare the DNA code to the binary code used by computers. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/aromatic-compounds/aromatic-stability/v/aromatic-heterocycles-i, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterocyclic_compound, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_analogues, https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/rna.htm, Involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation; carrier of genetic information in some viruses. Biological functions of Nucleic Acids Aiswarya Surendran Follow B.Ed physical science at KUCTE, Kumarapuram, TVPM at Student Advertisement Recommended Structure and Function of Nucleic Acids cgales 17k views 15 slides Nucleic Acid / Protein structure & Functions RGCL 12k views 20 slides Structure of nucleic acid Dr Muhammad Mustansar 1.4k views Lewin, B., Gene Expression. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 327 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2016.06.002 Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303846502_Metal_ion_induced_heterogeneity_in_RNA_folding_studied_by_smFRET, Hardison, R. (2019) B-Form, A-Form, and Z-Form of DNA. For a discussion of the genetic code, see heredity, and for a discussion of the role played by nucleic acids in protein synthesis, see metabolism. All living cells on Earth read and write their source codes in almost exactly the same language using nucleic acids. The pseudoknot has two stems that form a "helix" and two loops. Thereafter, this form of genetic manipulation became commonplace. This processing is associated with strand extension and disruption of base pair at every third base. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are the 4 major classes of biological macromolecules that are necessary for life and survival. The A-form helix arises when conditions of dehydration below 75% of normal occur and have mainly been observed in vitro during X-ray crystallography experiments when the DNA helix has become desiccated. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. One of the main biological functions of nucleic acids is storing the genetic code from the forefathers and transmitting them to the offspring. To transport DNAs instructions to other parts of the cell, copies of its information are made using another type of nucleic acid RNA. Adenine (Purines) 2. Binding can also lead to a mutation or recombination at the site. Part of Springer Nature. Nitrogenous Base Types of Nucleotide Bases 1. Nucleic acid is a natural chemical compound that can be broken down to produce phosphoric acid, sugars and a combination of organic bases (nucleotide, purines, and pyrimidines). Google Scholar. Direct link to shreya punniamoorthy's post Yes, all 46 chromosomes a, Posted 7 years ago. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. (ii) Nucleic acids (both DNA and RNA) are responsible for protein synthesis in a cell. Acids Res 1, 577594. In: Hoppe, W., Lohmann, W., Markl, H., Ziegler, H. (eds) Biophysics. In this article, we will study nucleic acids, types of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, their basic structure, and the biological functions of nucleic acids. Within the nucleus, the DNA is protected. The classical genetic code maps nucleotide triplets to amino acids. Proteins and nucleic acids play important biological functions : they catalyze and regulate reactions, transport substrates, code and transcribe genetic information. Thus, DNA synthesis is directional, only occuring at the 3-end of the molecule. PubMedGoogle Scholar, Max-Planck-Institut fr Biochemie, Am Klopferspitz, D-8033, Martinsried, Germany, Institut fr Biophysik, Universitt Gieen Strahlenzentrum, Leihgesterner Weg 217, D-6300, Gieen, Germany, Fakultt fr Biologie, Universitt Konstanz, Postfach 5560, D-7750, Konstanz, Germany, Institut fr Botanik und Mikrobiologie, Technischen Universitt Mnchen, Arcisstrae 21, D-8000, Mnchen 2, Germany, Heumann, H., Zillig, W. (1983). 2023 Leaf Group Ltd. / Leaf Group Media, All Rights Reserved. Abstract. The two sugar-phosphate backbones are shown in green and yellow. 6 Numerous . Scientists eventually found the answer in the form of DNA deoxyribonucleic acid a molecule located in the nucleus of cells, which was passed down from parent cells to daughter cells. Retrieved 19:40, July 25, 2019, from en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DNA_supercoil&oldid=897160342, Wikipedia contributors. Biomolecules include macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.-It also includes small molecules like primary and secondary metabolites and natural products . Stereoisomers The pentose sugar in DNA (2-deoxyribose) differs from the sugar in RNA (ribose) by the absence of a hydroxyl group (OH) on the 2 carbon of the sugar ring. In this model, a pyrimidine strand lies in the major groove of an A-form like WatsonCrick double helix and forms Hoogsteen type . The difference is in the structure of the nucleic acids, and how they bind together, Only strange organisms like viruses use RNA, Aiding in the transfer of cellular signals, Building and maintaining the genetic information. Gene Therapy is a technique where defective cells are replaced by normal genes to prevent genetic disorders or diseases. Biochimie. "Nucleic Acid. Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary information-carrying molecules in cells. For instance, some genes specify, DNA and RNA are polymers (in the case of DNA, often very long polymers), and are made up of monomers known as. Produced by the National University of Singapore. 248 The CRISPR/Cas system was originally discovered in bacteria and shows an antiviral function by cleaving nucleic acids that . Lab. The hydrogen still remains, but the OH . If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked. This means that the two strands of a DNA double helix have a very predictable relationship to each other. The nucleic acids consists of two major macromolecules, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that carry the genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and viruses. There are five types of nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U). A molecule found in DNA/RNA that encodes the genetic information in cells. They play an especially important role in directing protein synthesis. For DNA, the 2-hydroxyl group is removed from the ribonucleoside diphosphate to give deoxyribonucleoside diphosphate. When combined with a reaction with a positive change in free energy, ATP hydrolysis shifts the overall process balance to favor product formation. The DNA molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, which comprise three distinct components, such as phosphate groups, nitrogen bases, and sugar. (Assuming that you are refering to DNA and RNA) DNA is really important for cell division (which is important for growth, development, and regeneration) and stores genetic information. In vitro, the Z-form of DNA is adopted in short sequences that alternate pyrimidine and purines and when high salinity is present. Other Functions of Nucleic Acid Nucleotides Carry Chemical Energy in Cells One or two additional phosphates may be attached to the phosphate group covalently linked to a ribonucleotide's 5' hydroxyl. Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids The biological functions of nucleic acids play a major role in determining the characteristics of humans. The phosphate group connects successive sugar residues by bridging the 5-hydroxyl group on one sugar to the 3-hydroxyl group of the next sugar in the chain. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The well-known structure of the DNA double helix allows this information to be copied and passed on to the next generation. Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, encodes the information cells need to make proteins. Vedantu LIVE Online Master Classes is an incredibly personalized tutoring platform for you, while you are staying at your home. . The same must be true of double-stranded DNA, which must "unfold' or separate on replication, transcription and repair. For many years, scientists wondered how living things knew how to produce all the complex materials they need to grow and survive, and how they passed their traits down to their offspring. If one considers RNA and protein binding as a coupled equilibrium, it should be clear that protein binding to RNA might also induce conformation changes, specifically noncanonical base pairs, in the RNA. What is the biological function of amino acids? Direct link to tyersome's post Within a gene *usually* o, Posted 7 years ago. 2. In biosynthesis, ATP hydrolysis often plays a significant thermodynamic role. Carbohydrates are commonly used by cells as respiratory substrates. Within the nucleus, much of the RNA synthesized from DNA templates in eukaryotic cells, including mammalian cells, is degraded and never serves as either a structural or informational entity within the cell cytoplasm. Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life.They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell. Lenglet and David-Cordonnier (2010) Journal of Nucleic Acids, http://dx.doi.org/10.4061/2010/290935. Triple helix formation can also occur within a single strand of DNA. Could there ever be an instance where there are more than just five kinds of nitrogenous bases (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytocine and Uracil)? 5. Under standard conditions, hydrolysis of the ester bond yields about 14 kJ / mol, whereas hydrolysis of each bond yields about 30 kJ / mol. Figure \(\PageIndex{18}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of the REV Response element RNA complexed with REV peptide (1ETF). Direct link to Ivana - Science trainee's post Yes, miRNA regulates prot, Posted 2 years ago. National Institutes of Health. Based upon years of work using hydrolysis to break down and analyze yeast nucleic acids, Levene proposed that nucleic acids were composed of a series of nucleotides, and that each. Both of these functions require the DNA molecule to represent as a template in the first case for the transcription of the information into RNA and in the second case for the daughter DNA molecules. For a single strand, the primary sequence is just the base sequence read from the 5' to 3' end of the strand, with the bases thought of as "side chains" as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) for an RNA strand which contains U instead of T. Since it is found partnered with another molecule (strand) of DNA, the double stranded DNA, which consists of two molecules held together by hydrogen bonds, might be considered to have secondary structure (analogous to alpha and beta structure in proteins). From a chemical perspective, the nucleotides that are strung together to create nucleic acids consist of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base. Recipient of 1993 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Nucleic acids, macromolecules made out of units called nucleotides, come in two naturally occurring varieties: deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) and ribonucleic acid ( RNA ). We also learn the importance of XeF6 molecular geometry and bond angles importance and much more about the topic in detail. Just keep in mind that, even though all life forms have DNA, not everything that has DNA is alive: viruses can have DNA but are not living. Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. Furthermore, the orientation of the sugar molecule within the strand determines the directionality of the strands. Please refer to our Nucleic Acid Structure article for more information. In fact, scientists are using these molecules to build the basis of an artificial life form, which could maintain the artificial nucleic acid and extract information from it to build new proteins and survive. DNA fingerprinting is another function of nucleic acids where every individual has different fingerprints, and this function helps in identifying one person from another. (c) Mono- or bis-intercalation of a small molecule (shown in blue) between adjacent base pairs resulting in an unwinding of the DNA helix (orange arrow on the top) and a lengthening of the DNA helix (Length) depending on the X and y values that are specific for a defined DNA intercalating compound. New insights gained from recent studies suggest that nucleic acids not only code genetic information in sequences but also have unknown functions regarding their structures and stabilities through drastic structural changes in cellular . Dilauro, R., Rosenberg, M., de Combrugghe, B., N.I.H./Sklarr, J., Weissman, S.M. Goffena, J et al. Here, we'll take a look at four major types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and regulatory RNAs. The phosphate group is attached to the 5' carbon. In this article, we will learn about the XeF6 Molecular Geometry And Bond Angles in detail. There are two purposes in the genetic information stored in the DNA nucleotide sequence. However, the A-form of the double helix can occur in vivo when RNA adopts a double stranded conformation, or when RNA-DNA complexes form. They are a bit hard to describe in words so lets first examine one particular structure. The biological function of DNA is quite simple, to carry and protect the genetic code. Nucleic acids are the biomolecules that are essential for every form of life present on the earth. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. Ed. Every living thing on Earth uses nucleic acids as a source or location for storing information of source code or hereditary information. Biologydictionary.net Editors. The double-helix model of DNA structure was first published in the journal Nature by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953,(X,Y,Z coordinates in 1954) based upon the crucial X-ray diffraction image of DNA from Rosalind Franklin in 1952, followed by her more clarified DNA image with Raymond Gosling, Maurice Wilkins, Alexander Stokes, and Herbert Wilson, and base-pairing chemical and biochemical information by Erwin Chargaff. Biological databases are stores of biological information. Examples of double-stranded RNA viruses are rotaviruses that cause severe gastroenteritis in children and other immunocompromised individuals. When two DNA sequences match in this way, such that they can stick to each other in an antiparallel fashion and form a helix, they are said to be. However, DNA and RNA are not the only nucleic acids. In the first paragraph of the section "Regulatory RNA (miRNAs and siRNAs)" it says "They bind to specific mRNA molecules (with partly or fully complementary sequences) and reduce their stability or interfere with their translation, providing a way for the cell to decrease or fine-tune levels of these mRNAs.". (2017, September 07). This provides indirect evidence for evolution. These are just some examples out of many types of noncoding and regulatory RNAs. An additional phosphate group from ATP is then added by another kinase to form a deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate, the immediate precursor of DNA. Nucleic acids are large biomolecules that play essential roles in all cells and viruses. They are the cell's main information-carrying molecules and they ultimately determine the inherited traits of every living organism by guiding the entire process of protein synthesis. The main function of nucleic acids is to store and carry the hereditary information for the functioning of the cell. Quadruplex can be forme in 1 strand of a nucleic acid (as in the above model) or from 2 or 4 separate strands. Acids Res. Here is an example: 5'-GCATGGTACG-3'. Thus, when each strand of the double-stranded parental DNA molecule separates during replication from its complement, each serves as a template for synthesizing a new complementary strand. Hoogsteen base pairs between G and C can also occur on rotation but in addition, the N3 of cytosine is protonated, as shown in Figure 14 above. As stated, nucleic acid is a specific large molecule that is made up of a polymer or strings that are made up of nucleotides. There are an extraordinary number of arginines which form ion-ion interactions with the negatively charged phosphates in the major grove of this double-stranded A-RNA. All nucleic acids contain the bases A, C, and G; T, however, is found only in DNA, while U is found in RNA. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03516-1Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of the tertiary structure of the T4 hairpin loop on a Z-DNA stem (1D16). Figure \(\PageIndex{25}\) shows an interactive iCn3D model of a Hoogsteen base pair embedded in undistorted B-DNA - MATAlpha2 homeodomain bound to DNA (1K61). Z-DNA Unlike others, the Z-DNA is left-handed DNA. Check out this, Posted 7 years ago. USA 72, 737741. Some scientists have even suggested that such meteorites may have helped create the first self-replicating nucleic acid life on Earth. The 2-OH group of the ribose sugar backbone in the RNA molecule prevents the RNA-DNA hybrid from adopting the B-conformation due to steric hindrance. Viruses are increasingly recognised as important components of the human microbiome, fulfilling numerous ecological roles including bacterial predation, immune stimulation, genetic diversification . What is the basic structure of a nucleic acid? Direct link to Marwan's post Are all the 46 chromosome, Posted 7 years ago. What is a nitrogenous base? This process helps in transferring the characteristics from one cell to another, which is also known as heredity. (2019, July 17). In addition to lipids and polysaccharides, proteins are components of the cell structure. After looking at the myriad of structures showing the nearly parallel hydrogen bonded base pairs, and from ideas from most textbooks and classes you have taken, you probably think that double-stranded DNA is held together and stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases. However as our ability to record information on silicon has advanced, little attention has been given to research into genetic computers.. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves. All nucleic acids contain the bases A, C, and G; T, however, is found only in DNA, while U is found in RNA. The basic repeating unit in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) is the nucleotide [18]. The backbone of nucleic acid has a 5-membered sugar ring, which adds rigidity to the backbone, linked to another sugar ring by CH2O(PO3)O- connectors, which add some additional conformational freedom. Later experiments revealed that another type of nucleic acid RNA, or ribonucleic acid acted as a messenger that could carry copies of the instructions found in DNA. Nucleosides, when phosphorylated by kinases, form nucleotides, which in turn, serve as the monomeric unit of nucleic acids. Sets of three nucleotides, called codons, can code for any given amino acid, or for the stop or start of protein production. Although RNA is typically single cell stranded, there is considerable diversity in viruses. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. This process of transmission is called heredity. Nucleic acids are formed mainly with the elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Are all the 46 chromosomes present in a single cell? Nucleoproteins are a type of proteins that are associated with the nucleic acids and ribosomes and lipoproteins, they often serve as a transport of lipids and storage proteins like vitelline. Cold Spring Harbor Monograph Series, Cold Spring Harb. We will study packing of DNA in other sections. Direct link to Ivana - Science trainee's post This one is the best expl. Thus, nucleosides are biologically important as they serve as a structural constituent of DNA and RNA. Incorporation of the incoming nucleoside triphosphate is mediated by the nucleophilic attack of the 3-OH of the growing DNA polymer. The purine and pyrimidine residues are reused by several salvage pathways to make more genetic material. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) encodes the information the cell needs to make proteins. Sugimoto, K., Sugisaki, H., Okamoto, T., Takanami, M. (1975) Nucl. The extensions also allows transient "hole" to appear between base pairs which might assist in the binding of intercolating agents like some transition metal complexes. 4. Figure \(\PageIndex{26}\): The reverse Hoogsteen AT base pair. Scientists are still discovering new varieties of noncoding RNA. Adapted from Calladine and Drews schematic box representation. RNA Polymerase. Nucleic acids are the main information-carrying molecules of the cell, and, by directing the process of protein synthesis, they determine the inherited characteristics of every living thing. RNA also helps in protein synthesis. Its these RNA copies of genetic information which are sent out of the nucleus and around the cell to be used as instructions by cellular machinery. Some RNA molecules have catalytic activity intrinsic to them. #structure of nucleic acids dna and rna, #structure of dna and rna, #what are nucleotides, #what is rna, #structure of dna and rna molecules, #nitrogenous ba. This dynamic extension may be required for transitions of B-DNA to Z-DNA, for example. The tRNA carries an amino acid, our ingredient to make the protein. Hypoxanthine can from the wobble base pairs I-U, I-A and I-C when incorporated into RNA, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{22}\). Other genomic elements code for the expression and processing of RNA transcripts. Nucleotides Carry Chemical Energy in Cells, One or two additional phosphates may be attached to the phosphate group covalently linked to a ribonucleotide's 5' hydroxyl. The double stranded helix of DNA is not always stable. Download preview PDF.

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